Legionella water testing is often misunderstood. Many duty holders believe they must test water regularly, while others assume testing alone fulfills their legal obligations. Neither is correct. This guide explains when legionella testing is genuinely required, how sampling works, and how to interpret results.
Understanding the role of testing in your overall legionella control programme will help you spend resources effectively and maintain genuine protection rather than box-ticking compliance.
Do you currently test your water for legionella?
Let's check if testing is right for your situation
What is legionella water testing?
Legionella water testing (also called water sampling or microbiological testing) involves taking water samples from your system and analyzing them in a laboratory to detect and quantify legionella bacteria.
What the test measures
Legionella bacteria count:
- Measured in Colony Forming Units per litre (CFU/L)
- Indicates concentration of viable legionella in the sample
- Different species identified (primarily Legionella pneumophila)
- Serogroup identification for L. pneumophila (serogroup 1 is most dangerous)
Types of testing:
Culture testing (standard method):
- Water incubated on culture plates for 7-10 days
- Bacteria colonies counted and identified
- Gold standard for quantification
- Takes longer but provides accurate counts
PCR testing (rapid method):
- DNA detection of legionella
- Results in 24-48 hours
- Detects both live and dead bacteria (can overestimate risk)
- Useful for rapid screening but less reliable for risk assessment
Water testing tells you if legionella bacteria are present and at what concentration. It does NOT tell you if your control measures are adequate - that requires temperature monitoring, system inspections, and proper maintenance verification.
When is legionella testing required?
There is no automatic legal requirement to test water for legionella. The law requires a risk assessment and effective control measures. Testing is only necessary when your risk assessment identifies it as needed.
When testing is required or recommended
High-risk systems:
- Cooling towers and evaporative condensers (quarterly testing typical)
- Healthcare facilities with vulnerable patients
- Care homes with immunocompromised residents
- Systems serving transplant units or oncology wards
- Spa pools and hot tubs used by the public
When control measures may be inadequate:
- Temperature control cannot be achieved (water persistently in 20-45°C range)
- Complex systems where stagnation cannot be eliminated
- Systems with known defects that cannot be immediately rectified
- Buildings with historical legionella issues
Verification of remedial work:
- After system disinfection
- Following major plumbing alterations
- After prolonged shutdown and recommissioning
- To verify that remediation has been effective
Outbreak investigation:
- Suspected or confirmed case of Legionnaires' disease
- Public Health investigation
- HSE enforcement action
Benchmarking and audit:
- Initial baseline sample to verify new system cleanliness
- Periodic verification that controls remain effective
- Annual audit sample for high-risk systems even when controls are good
When testing is NOT required
Simple systems with effective controls:
- Domestic properties with good temperature control
- Small offices with straightforward plumbing
- Buildings with combination boilers (no hot water storage)
- Direct mains-fed cold water (no storage tanks)
- All outlets used regularly with no stagnation
When temperature control is effective:
- Hot water consistently stored at 60°C+
- Hot water delivered at 50°C+ at outlets
- Cold water below 20°C throughout system
- Regular temperature monitoring confirms control
Low-risk buildings with regular use:
- Standard occupancy with daily water use
- No vulnerable populations
- Simple water systems
- No history of problems
HSE has clarified that testing should be based on risk assessment findings, not a default requirement. Many duty holders waste money on routine testing that provides no additional assurance beyond temperature monitoring and proper maintenance.
What does testing tell you?
Water testing provides specific information but has limitations:
What testing reveals
Presence of legionella:
- Confirms whether bacteria are in your system
- Identifies species and serogroups
- Quantifies concentration levels
Effectiveness of recent disinfection:
- Verifies that chlorination or heat treatment worked
- Confirms system is clean after remediation
Comparative trends:
- If testing repeatedly, shows whether bacteria counts are increasing or decreasing
- Can indicate deteriorating control
What testing does NOT tell you
Whether control measures are adequate:
- Testing is a snapshot at one moment in time
- Negative result doesn't mean controls are working (bacteria may grow later)
- Positive result doesn't always mean illness risk (depends on concentration and aerosol exposure)
Where the bacteria came from:
- Sample from outlet doesn't show if contamination is in tank, pipework, or showerhead
- May need extensive sampling to trace source
Whether your risk assessment is adequate:
- Testing doesn't replace the need for proper risk assessment
- Can't tell you what control measures you should implement
If someone will get ill:
- Legionella presence doesn't automatically cause disease
- Risk depends on concentration, aerosol formation, and individual vulnerability
- Low counts may pose minimal risk; higher counts require action
Testing vs Temperature Monitoring
Water Testing
- •Snapshot of bacterial presence at one moment
- •Results take 7-10 days (culture method)
- •Expensive (£50-£150 per sample plus sampling costs)
- •Useful for verification and investigation
- •Cannot predict future bacterial growth
- •Doesn't confirm daily control effectiveness
Temperature Monitoring
Recommended- •Ongoing verification of primary control measure
- •Immediate results
- •Low cost (thermometer and logbook)
- •Directly measures control effectiveness
- •Predictive of future bacterial control
- •Foundation of most control programmes
Bottom line: For most water systems, regular temperature monitoring provides better ongoing assurance than periodic water testing. Testing supplements monitoring but rarely replaces it as the primary control verification method.
How often to test
If your risk assessment determines testing is necessary, frequency depends on risk level:
Cooling towers and evaporative condensers
Quarterly sampling:
- Required by HSG274 Part 1
- Minimum standard for most cooling systems
- More frequent in high-risk locations
Monthly sampling:
- Healthcare facilities
- Systems with previous positive results
- High public exposure risk
Healthcare and care facilities
Annual sampling (minimum):
- Care homes for general assurance
- GP surgeries and clinics
- Dental practices
Quarterly sampling:
- Hospital patient areas
- Transplant or oncology units
- High-risk wards
Monthly sampling:
- Systems serving immunocompromised patients
- Following previous positive results
- During outbreak investigation
Commercial and public buildings
Annual sampling:
- Hotels and guest accommodation (if risk assessment indicates)
- Leisure centers with complex systems
- Large offices with storage tanks
Every 2 years:
- Low to medium risk systems
- Verification of control effectiveness
- Audit sampling
No routine sampling:
- Simple systems with good temperature control
- Small offices and commercial premises
- Buildings with combination boilers
- Effective controls and regular monitoring
Domestic and rental properties
Rarely required:
- Simple domestic properties typically don't need routine testing
- Temperature control and flushing are primary controls
- Testing only if risk assessment identifies specific concern
Possible exceptions:
- Properties with vulnerable occupants
- Complex HMOs with multiple storage tanks
- Historical contamination issues
- Prolonged vacancy followed by re-occupation
Typical Water Testing Schedule (if required)
Mandatory for cooling systems under HSG274 Part 1
Care homes, healthcare facilities, hotels
Simple commercial systems where assessment indicates testing
Confirm effectiveness of chlorination or heat treatment
Immediate sampling if Legionnaires' disease suspected
When monitoring shows control failures
How legionella sampling works
Proper sampling requires specific procedures to ensure valid results:
Who can take samples
Competent person:
- Trained in legionella sampling procedures
- Understands aseptic technique
- Knows where to sample based on risk assessment
- Can interpret and act on results
Typical samplers:
- Water hygiene specialists
- Environmental health officers
- Trained facility managers (if properly qualified)
- Laboratory sampling services
Not suitable:
- Untrained staff (risk of contaminated samples)
- General plumbers without specific training
- Anyone unfamiliar with BS 7592 standards
Sampling methodology (BS 7592:2008)
Preparation:
- Identify sampling points based on risk assessment
- Sentinel taps, tank outlets, showerheads, cooling tower water
- Ensure sampling bottles are sterile and contain neutralizing agent (sodium thiosulphate)
Sampling procedure:
- Remove showerheads, aerators, or tap fittings
- Sterilize outlet externally (flaming or swabbing with alcohol)
- Allow water to run briefly (10-30 seconds) to clear stagnant water in tap
- Collect sample directly into sterile bottle
- Fill to marked line, avoiding overfilling
- Label immediately with location, date, time, temperature
Temperature measurement:
- Record water temperature at time of sampling
- Essential context for interpreting results
- Use calibrated thermometer
Chain of custody:
- Transport samples to laboratory within 24 hours
- Keep cool but not frozen (ideally 4-8°C)
- Complete laboratory submission form with site details
What to sample
Hot water system:
- Hot water storage tank outlet (calorifier flow)
- Return pipe to tank (calorifier return)
- Sentinel taps (first and last on system)
- Showerheads
Cold water system:
- Cold water storage tank outlet
- Sentinel taps (first and last on system)
- Taps in rarely-used areas
Specific systems:
- Cooling tower basin water
- Spa pool or hot tub water
- Water features
- TMV outlets
Typical sample number:
- Small building: 3-6 samples
- Medium building: 6-12 samples
- Large complex: 12-30+ samples
- Cooling towers: Minimum 3 samples per tower
DIY sampling using home test kits is not recommended for compliance purposes. These kits often lack proper controls, may give false results, and aren't recognized by HSE. Always use UKAS-accredited laboratories and competent samplers.
Interpreting test results
Legionella results are reported as Colony Forming Units per litre (CFU/L). Interpretation depends on concentration, location, and context.
HSE action levels
Less than 100 CFU/L:
- Low risk
- Maintain current control measures
- Continue monitoring
- No immediate action required
100-1,000 CFU/L:
- Review risk assessment
- Check control measures are operating correctly
- Investigate potential causes (temperature, stagnation, etc.)
- Resample within 7 days to confirm
- Consider remedial action if levels persist
More than 1,000 CFU/L:
- High risk - immediate action required
- Review entire control programme
- Increase monitoring frequency
- Implement immediate controls (temperature checks, flushing)
- Consider system disinfection
- Resample after remediation
- Notify relevant authorities if in high-risk setting
Context matters
Location-specific interpretation:
- High counts in showerheads may indicate biofilm (clean and resample)
- High counts in tank samples indicate system contamination (more serious)
- Cold water above 1,000 CFU/L more concerning if stored at warm temperatures
Temperature considerations:
- High counts with good temperature control suggests recent contamination
- High counts with poor temperature control indicates systemic issue
- Cold water at 15°C with legionella less urgent than cold water at 25°C
Serogroup identification:
- Legionella pneumophila serogroup 1 is most dangerous (90% of disease cases)
- Other serogroups and species less clinically significant
- Total legionella count includes all species
Positive result action plan
Immediate actions (within 24 hours):
- Notify responsible person and duty holder
- Review water temperatures and control measures
- Increase temperature monitoring frequency
- Consider restricting use of affected outlets
- Inform occupants if in high-risk setting (healthcare)
Short-term actions (within 1 week):
- Identify likely source of contamination
- Check system operation (pumps, thermostats, TMVs)
- Inspect tanks and equipment visually
- Implement enhanced flushing regime
- Resample to confirm extent of contamination
Medium-term actions (within 1 month):
- Disinfect system if counts remain high
- Clean tanks and remove biofilm
- Rectify temperature control failures
- Remove dead legs or little-used outlets
- Verify remediation with follow-up sampling
Care home acts on water test results
A care home conducted routine annual legionella water sampling as part of their control programme. Results showed 1,500 CFU/L Legionella pneumophila serogroup 1 in a shower room serving vulnerable elderly residents. Immediate action was required.
- ✗Monthly temperature monitoring had been inconsistent
- ✗Hot water at the affected shower measured only 42°C
- ✗Showerheads had not been cleaned for over a year
- ✗TMV partially failed, reducing hot water delivery
- ✗Staff assumed temperature monitoring wasn't critical because 'the water feels hot'
The care home immediately closed the affected shower, increased hot water temperature to 60°C, replaced the faulty TMV, cleaned all showerheads, and disinfected the system. Follow-up sampling showed <10 CFU/L. CQC were notified as required, but no enforcement action taken due to prompt response. Temperature monitoring was improved with weekly checks and supervisor review.
Water testing detected a problem that temperature monitoring should have caught earlier. Regular monitoring prevents issues reaching this stage. However, when testing identifies contamination, swift action prevents illness. The care home's rapid response demonstrated good duty holder responsibility.
Laboratory requirements
Not all laboratories are suitable for legionella testing:
UKAS accreditation
What is UKAS?
- United Kingdom Accreditation Service
- National accreditation body
- Ensures laboratories meet ISO 17025 standards
Why it matters:
- Only UKAS-accredited results recognized by HSE
- Ensures reliable, reproducible testing
- Quality assurance and audited procedures
- Results defensible in enforcement or legal cases
Check accreditation:
- Laboratory should display UKAS certificate
- Ask for accreditation scope (should include legionella testing)
- Verify current accreditation status on UKAS website
What the laboratory should provide
Test report contents:
- Sample identification and location
- Date and time of sampling
- Sample temperature at collection
- CFU/L count for total legionella
- Species identification (L. pneumophila, others)
- Serogroup identification if L. pneumophila present
- Method used and detection limit
- Laboratory accreditation details
Turnaround time:
- Standard culture testing: 7-10 days
- Preliminary results may be available at 5 days
- Final identification and serogroup: 10-14 days
- Rapid PCR tests: 24-48 hours (if offered)
Interpretation guidance:
- Good laboratories provide context with results
- Action levels referenced
- Recommendations for further action
- Contact details for technical queries
Be wary of online "instant" legionella tests or DIY kits claiming to provide immediate results. These are typically presence/absence tests that cannot quantify bacteria levels and are not suitable for compliance purposes. Stick with UKAS-accredited laboratories using validated culture methods.
System disinfection after positive results
When testing reveals high legionella counts, disinfection may be necessary:
When disinfection is required
- Legionella counts above 1,000 CFU/L
- Persistent contamination despite control improvements
- After outbreaks or confirmed illness
- Before re-commissioning long-closed systems
- As directed by Public Health or HSE
Disinfection methods
Thermal disinfection (heat treatment):
- Raise hot water temperature to 60-65°C
- Flush entire system, running each outlet for 5 minutes minimum
- Ensure water temperature at outlet reaches 60°C+
- Effective but requires careful scalding precautions
Chemical disinfection (chlorination):
- Chlorinate system to 20-50 mg/L free chlorine
- Circulate throughout system for 1-2 hours
- Flush thoroughly to remove chlorine residue
- Requires specialist contractor for large systems
Tank cleaning and disinfection:
- Drain and clean tanks to remove biofilm and debris
- Disinfect with chlorine solution
- Rinse thoroughly before refilling
- Combine with system disinfection
Post-disinfection verification
- Wait at least 48 hours after disinfection
- Resample at same locations
- Expect significant reduction or elimination of legionella
- If counts remain high, investigate cause:
- Residual biofilm
- Re-contamination from tank
- Dead legs not reached by disinfection
- Underlying system defects
Never attempt to disinfect complex systems (cooling towers, large buildings) without specialist help. Improper disinfection can spread contamination, damage equipment, or expose people to hazardous chemicals or scalding water.
Alternatives to water testing
For many systems, other verification methods are more appropriate and cost-effective:
Temperature monitoring
Why it's better for most systems:
- Directly measures primary control (temperature)
- Immediate feedback
- Low cost and easy to implement
- Predictive of future bacterial growth
- Required regardless of whether you test water
What to monitor:
- Hot water storage at 60°C minimum
- Hot water at outlets at 50°C minimum (within 1 minute)
- Cold water storage and outlets below 20°C
- Weekly or monthly checks at sentinel taps
When it's sufficient:
- Simple systems with good temperature control
- Regular building occupancy and water use
- No vulnerable populations
- No history of contamination
Visual inspections
What to inspect:
- Cold water storage tanks (cleanliness, lid security, debris)
- Insulation (hot pipes stay hot, cold stay cold)
- Dead legs and little-used outlets
- Showerheads and aerators (scale, biofilm)
- Visible corrosion or deterioration
Frequency:
- Quarterly visual checks of accessible equipment
- Annual tank inspection (internal)
- Continuous observation by maintenance staff
System flushing
Stagnation prevention:
- Weekly flushing of little-used outlets
- 2 minutes running time minimum
- Ensures water turnover
- Prevents bacterial multiplication in dead zones
Verification:
- Document flushing activities
- Temperature checks during flushing
- Visual inspection for discoloration or debris
Maintenance records
Track system health:
- Boiler servicing (ensures temperature control)
- TMV maintenance (annual testing)
- Tank cleaning certificates
- Repairs and alterations
- Equipment replacements
Why it matters:
- Demonstrates ongoing compliance
- Shows control measures are maintained
- Identifies deteriorating equipment before failures
For most buildings, a robust temperature monitoring programme combined with regular flushing, visual inspections, and planned maintenance provides better legionella control than sporadic water testing. Testing should supplement these controls, not replace them.
Costs of legionella testing
Understanding costs helps you decide if testing is necessary:
Sampling costs
Professional sampling service:
- Site visit and sample collection: £150-£400
- Depends on number of samples and site complexity
- Includes sampling equipment, transport, documentation
DIY sampling (if competent):
- Sterile sample bottles: £5-£10 each
- Thermometer and sampling kit: £50-£100 one-time cost
- Transport to laboratory
- Your time and training costs
Laboratory analysis costs
Standard culture testing:
- Basic legionella count: £50-£80 per sample
- Full identification and serogroup: £80-£120 per sample
- Bulk discounts for multiple samples
Rapid PCR testing:
- Faster results: £100-£150 per sample
- Less reliable for risk assessment
- Useful for initial screening
Total costs for typical scenarios
Small office (3 samples):
- Sampling visit: £200
- Laboratory analysis: £240 (3 x £80)
- Total: £440
Care home (10 samples):
- Sampling visit: £350
- Laboratory analysis: £1,000 (10 x £100)
- Total: £1,350
Large building (20 samples):
- Sampling visit: £500
- Laboratory analysis: £2,000 (20 x £100)
- Total: £2,500
Hidden costs
Follow-up sampling:
- If initial results positive, resampling required
- Can double or triple costs
Remediation:
- System disinfection: £500-£5,000+
- Tank cleaning: £300-£1,000 per tank
- Equipment repairs or replacements
- Lost time if systems shut down
Opportunity cost:
- Money spent on unnecessary testing could fund better controls
- Temperature monitoring equipment and training may be better investment
Annual Costs: Testing vs Monitoring
Annual Water Testing (10 samples)
- •Sampling and analysis: £1,350
- •One-off snapshot per year
- •Results take 10 days
- •May identify issues after they've developed
- •Doesn't verify daily control
- •Total annual cost: £1,350+
Monthly Temperature Monitoring
Recommended- •Digital thermometer: £50 (one-time)
- •Logbook: £10 per year
- •Staff time: 1 hour/month
- •Immediate feedback on control effectiveness
- •Prevents issues before they develop
- •Total annual cost: £60 + staff time
Bottom line: For most buildings, investing in robust temperature monitoring provides better value and protection than annual water testing. Testing should be reserved for situations where monitoring alone cannot verify control effectiveness.
Common misconceptions about legionella testing
"We must test water every year by law"
Wrong. There is no automatic legal requirement to test water annually. The law requires a risk assessment and control measures. Testing is only required if your risk assessment identifies it as necessary.
"A negative test result means we're safe"
Not necessarily. Legionella can grow rapidly if conditions change. A negative result today doesn't guarantee safety tomorrow if temperature control fails or water stagnates. Ongoing monitoring is essential.
"Testing is more reliable than temperature monitoring"
Wrong. Temperature monitoring provides continuous verification that your primary control is working. Testing is a snapshot that may miss intermittent problems or fail to detect recent contamination.
"We can use a home testing kit"
Not for compliance. DIY kits are unreliable, not UKAS-accredited, and not recognized by HSE. They cannot quantify bacteria levels accurately. Use professional laboratories for compliance testing.
"If test results are low, we can stop monitoring"
Dangerous misconception. Low or negative test results don't mean you can relax control measures. Temperature monitoring, flushing, and maintenance must continue regardless of test results.
"Testing is a substitute for proper risk assessment"
Wrong. Testing can't tell you what control measures you need - only whether bacteria are present at one moment. A proper risk assessment identifies hazards and prescribes controls. Testing may verify those controls are working.
Over-reliance on water testing while neglecting basic controls (temperature, flushing, maintenance) is a common mistake. Testing should support your control programme, not replace the fundamentals of good water system management.
Regulatory expectations
HSE and other regulators have clear views on testing:
What HSE expects
Risk-based approach:
- Testing should be determined by risk assessment
- Not a default requirement for all premises
- Frequency based on risk level and system complexity
Temperature monitoring priority:
- Primary verification method for most systems
- Essential regardless of testing regime
- Immediate feedback on control effectiveness
Competent sampling:
- Samples taken by trained personnel
- UKAS-accredited laboratories
- Proper procedures following BS 7592
Action on results:
- Documented response to positive results
- Remediation and re-testing
- Review of control measures
CQC expectations (care sector)
Care homes and healthcare:
- Risk assessment must consider if testing is necessary
- Document decision whether to test or not
- If testing, ensure UKAS-accredited laboratory
- Demonstrate action on positive results
- Temperature monitoring essential regardless
Evidence of oversight:
- Regular review of testing data
- Trending of results over time
- Board or management awareness
- Integration with wider water safety programme
Industry best practice
Professional bodies recommend:
- Testing for high-risk systems (cooling towers, healthcare)
- Periodic verification testing for complex systems
- Post-remediation verification
- Benchmarking samples for new systems
Not recommended:
- Routine testing of simple, low-risk systems
- Testing instead of basic temperature monitoring
- Using non-accredited laboratories
- Testing without acting on results
Frequently asked questions
Not automatically. The law requires a risk assessment and control measures. Water testing is only necessary if your risk assessment identifies it as needed to verify controls. Many simple systems don't require routine testing if temperature control and maintenance are effective.
Professional sampling and laboratory analysis typically costs £50-£120 per sample. A small building might need 3-6 samples (£300-£720 total), while larger buildings could require 10-20 samples (£1,000-£2,400). Follow-up sampling after positive results adds to costs.
Not for compliance purposes. While DIY home test kits exist, they're unreliable and not UKAS-accredited. You could collect samples yourself if properly trained (following BS 7592), but they must be analyzed by a UKAS-accredited laboratory to be recognized by HSE.
Standard culture testing takes 7-10 days for preliminary results and up to 14 days for full identification and serogroup analysis. Rapid PCR tests can provide results in 24-48 hours but are less reliable for risk assessment purposes.
It means legionella bacteria are present in your water system. Action required depends on concentration: <100 CFU/L is low risk (maintain controls), 100-1,000 CFU/L requires investigation and resampling, >1,000 CFU/L is high risk requiring immediate action and possible system disinfection.
For most systems, yes. Temperature monitoring provides continuous verification that your primary control measure is working, gives immediate results, and costs far less. Water testing is a snapshot that can miss problems. Both have roles, but monitoring is the foundation.
It depends entirely on your risk assessment. Cooling towers: quarterly. Healthcare facilities: annually. Simple systems with good controls: rarely or never. There's no universal frequency - it must be based on your specific system and risk level.
Action depends on concentration. Review temperature control and system operation immediately. For counts >100 CFU/L, investigate causes, increase monitoring, and resample. For >1,000 CFU/L, consider system disinfection, notify relevant authorities if in high-risk setting, and review entire control programme.
Usually not. For simple domestic rental properties, temperature control and regular use typically provide sufficient control without testing. Landlords must conduct risk assessments, which may conclude testing isn't necessary. Only test if the assessment specifically identifies it as needed.
Not necessarily. Drinking water quality testing is different from legionella testing. Ensure the laboratory is specifically UKAS-accredited for legionella testing, not just general water microbiology. Check their scope of accreditation.
Summary: Is testing right for your premises?
Use this decision framework:
Test water if:
- You have cooling towers or evaporative condensers
- You operate healthcare or care facilities with vulnerable populations
- Risk assessment identifies specific contamination risks
- Temperature control cannot be achieved in parts of the system
- You're verifying effectiveness of remediation after contamination
- You have spa pools or hot tubs open to the public
- Previous contamination history requires ongoing verification
Don't test water if:
- You have simple domestic or office water systems
- Temperature control is consistently effective (verified by monitoring)
- Regular building use prevents stagnation
- No vulnerable populations
- Combination boilers with no water storage
- Risk assessment concludes testing isn't necessary
Instead, focus on:
- Comprehensive legionella risk assessment
- Regular temperature monitoring at sentinel points
- Flushing little-used outlets
- Annual boiler servicing and tank cleaning
- Visual inspections of water systems
- Maintaining detailed records
- Reviewing risk assessment every 2 years
Unsure whether your premises need legionella water testing? A qualified water hygiene specialist can review your systems, interpret your risk assessment, and advise whether testing would add value to your control programme.
Related articles
- What is a Legionella Risk Assessment?
- Temperature Monitoring for Legionella Control
- What is Legionella?
- Landlord Legionella Responsibilities
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Disclaimer: This guidance is for general information and is based on UK law and HSE guidance. It does not constitute legal or professional advice. For specific situations, consult a qualified water hygiene specialist or health and safety advisor. Laws and guidance may change.